Answer questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 12

Answer questions - Essay Example These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory; recent researchers have reï ¬ ned or developed them to suit modern conditions and part of it is the use of information system to make the management’s five activities to be more efficient. All of these management activities involve effective handling of information and this is where effective information systems come in helpful. For example, in performing the controlling aspect of management, it would involve handling various set of information to check if certain standards are met in production, sales or other business function. Information system will help me get this information through a network and handling this massive amount of information will be easier through the use of information software which would have been otherwise laborious without the help of information system. This makes me efficient and able to more effectively at a lesser time. Guidelines for its ethical use however must be established. Private information that relates to the employee or information that does not relate to the job must not be disclosed or used for other purpose other than what it is intended. Technology can be helpful but can also be destructive if it is not guided by ethical consideration. HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. Tim Berners-Lee, an engineer from CERN originally developed the idea of HTML. The idea of HTML came out of Berner-Lee’s frustration of having to log on to different computers just to get the information he needed. He mulled that there must be a better way to get a set of information from different computers which gave birth the idea of HTML. So the original concept of HTML was a hyper-text system that connects networking technology and protocols to share information between computers. From then on, it later developed to become the basis and fundamental language of the world wide web or internet (www.landofcode.com). It started with its

Scope and Kinds of Cyber Security Research Paper

Scope and Kinds of Cyber Security - Research Paper Example The researcher states that one can hardly imagine an activity that would not involve the computer and other digital equipment being used in digital devices. Their usage is furthermore visible in the organizational structures, both on managerial front, educational and governmental level. Having explained its dominance and presence all over in our surrounding, at the same time, it must be said that computing world which is an online world is a fragile one and is extremely vulnerable to the external threats and challenges. These threats come in form of security concerns. While it is an outer world where there is no restriction on anyone who may want to join the network of World Wide Web, it becomes imperative to create a security factor consideration which would enable safe operations. Since all kinds of activities are being performed over the computer and internet, ranging from private data exchange to financial records, governmental records, other documents of national security, centr al databases and various other elements, in such cases it becomes important to establish a mechanism that would ensure safer operations on the internet. Internet is being termed as one of the least equipped and least reliable source of communication when it comes to privacy and security. This has been proven in cases and forms of all kinds of breaches in different parts of the world from time to time. no bank, no individual, no organization , no website is safe from the attack of these insurgents who pose threat to the common flow of traffic across the board. Scope of cybersecurity: The scope of cybersecurity is a very large one and it finds its application in any place where there is computer and internet in function. It would find its usage in home applications, official applications, educational institutes, governmental, even in the aeroplanes where most of the transmission is done over computer and digital means, require safe coding methods. Anything that is on the board of onli ne interface is included in the scope of cybersecurity since it requires protection in one way or other. Even the domestic users of computer who may use it for ordinary online operations, require security and safety since any kind of malware or bug can penetrate into their computer and cause the desired damaged. The need for cybersecurity: Cyberworld is just like the society of human being. While over 3 billion people from across the world are on board on the digital interface, it does require patrolling and controlling of the entire traffic. Just like the society would need law and order, police control and patrol, in the same way a medium that has over 3 billion users would require a scheme which would ensure safe usage of internet and computers. With all kinds of operations subject to the usage of online resources, it is highly imperative to create a zone that is shielded with secure browsing of computers and the world of internet. Kinds of cybersecurity threats: Just like a phys ical society may face threats in different forms, the cyber world is no exception and it is faced with challenges and obstacles in various forms. These come in form of cybersecurity concerns.

A New Work Ethic Case 4.4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A New Work Ethic Case 4.4 - Essay Example As far as my experience is concerned, those with above attitude have failed to be a part of an organization for a long time as they have failed to score good in annual appraisal. In my experience I haven’t seen any thief from employee due to the culture of the society in which I live in and proper recording of the accounts where employees were thoroughly scrutinized. This culture also discouraged grouping which would hurt the business itself. I believe that employees, including me, have and will always believe that supervisors are paper-pushing functionaries who will get in the way as this is true. This discourages innovation on part of an employee and at times does not make them feel a part of an organization. Explain the implications of work ethic Sheehy describes for the future of American business. Work ethics is one of the key in any business success. In America, work ethics is more important and demanding due to its wider implications on the end beneficiary that is custo mer. First and foremost ingredient to work ethics is the hard work an employee puts into. Not only this but also a rewarding hard work which is worth every penny of the minute worked. Getting shortcuts and not making effort will not only result in downfall of the American businesses but also would result in dearth of employees on demand. Working hard just to Get big scores poisons a business environment and would get worst if that employee is given a major responsibility or is promoted up the hierarchy ladder. Explain whether it is more reasonable to expect workers, especially in a capitalist society, to be more devoted to their jobs, more concerned with quality and customer service, than Sheehy's coworkers were. Absolutely. In a capitalist society there is more thrust to be productive as capitalism brings in extra ordinary prosperity. Thus devotion to job is a must as it rewards virtue and punishes vice. More devoted to jobs, more fell employee will be paid as he/she would be seen as a resource which can not only retain but also bring in business. Sheehy’s co-workers would definitely fail in a capitalist society and would lose their jobs sooner rather than later (Thompson). A job like this depends on the customer services provided. Devotion to this job means to make a customer satisfied with the least of his requirements even and building a relationship with him which goes down to benefiting the business. Explain the reasoning behind employee theft. In frequent usage,  theft is the unlawful taking of another person's  personal belonging  with no prior permission of that person or any kind of approval.   Employee thief as a fact has been on a rise not only in developing world but also in the developed world which has been a huge strain on the businesses. Lack of maturity as an employee could be the first reason as most of them are teenagers. Some might be doing theft without any fear as most of them are from upper middle class and are not so wor ried about being getting fired. Peer pressure could be another reason where one would be treated well only if he/she will jell into the work ethics of the rest. Explain ways the culture of our capitalists society encourages attitudes like those Sheehy describes Corruption which is common in a capitalist

Case studies x 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case studies x 2 - Essay Example The team leader should not waste much time once he realized the diversity of his team vis-Ã  -vis the group task and must make efforts to reinforce the idea of collective achievement and mutual respect. The most important task is to motivate the unmotivated and who better to do this than the thinkers? They should be used to interact with the former subgroup to listen to their views, and check if there are any systemic defects or issues that need to be resolved. These interactions give the tutees opportunities to ask questions and for the tutors to be surprised by the elements of human attitude that govern group functioning and motivation. This two-way learning process helps the group cohesion and builds a sense of belonging. In a similar manner, the team leader has to publicly acknowledge the creativity and the hard work of individuals, and explain the gains that everyone in the team would enjoy as a result of the team effort, monetary or otherwise. The role of a CEO is judged by the touchstone of a healthy growth of his organization and keeping the stakeholders happy. In order to realize his objectives, he creates his teams and treats each individual on the merits of his/her contribution to the organization in achieving the short/medium/long term goals. One of the important aspects of performance is team spirit that overcomes short term individual grouses. Comparison and discontent are universal in organizations. They are to be handled in such a way that the solution neither creates more discontent nor demoralizes. In the present case, Jim has an impeccable track record of performance. His ability to develop contacts and build networks is of considerable value to the company and at the same time, points to the respect he commands in the market. He is thus a key resource that directly generates revenues for the

Arthur Miller Essay Example for Free

Arthur Miller Essay Arthur Miller was born in New York City on October 17th, 1915. His parents were both immigrants in the United States and lead a prosperous life because of the success of his fathers clothing manufacturing business. But the arrival of the disastrous Wall Street crash distorted his business along with the rest of the American economy. As the result, Miller worked as a warehouseman. A View from the Bridge was in a single act in its first version and was produced this way first in verse in 1955. This was then revised and was extended into a two-act play in 1956 when it was presented at the Comedy Theatre in London. In this assignment I will be discussing the role of the protagonist in A View from the Bridge, and I will look into his downfall and the part that he played in it. I will also be looking at the Aristotelian elements of a tragedy that Miller has used, and I will be highlighting and explaining the important dialogue and stagecraft. The play is set in a domestic area of New York called Red Hook and he describes it as the slum that faces the bay on the seaward side of Brooklyn Bridge. It has its roots in the late 1940s when Miller became interested in the everyday lives and work of the dockworkers of New Yorks Brooklyn harbour, where he had previously worked. He described it as a dangerous and mysterious world at the waters edge that drama and literature had never touched where many people worked and were poorly paid, exploited by their bosses, and importantly many were immigrants to the United States. This led to them being treated unequally and they faced racism as the whites were considered as a powerful race. Other factors that played a part in Miller writing this play was the Cold War, which occurred during the 1940s and which affected the economy and arose censorship and freedom. During this time a young lawyer friend of Millers also told him a story about a longshoreman who had ratted to the Immigration Bureau on two brothers, who were living illegally in his very own home. He also visited Sicily a few years later where he say huge levels of poverty that played a part in him including characters of Italian origin and keeping poverty as one of the main themes of this play. These above factors were the entire cultural context that led to Miller writing yet another very influential play A View from the Bridge. This play is a modern tragedy and Miller has followed the rules of a tragedy written by the famous Greek Philosopher Aristotle in a book called Poetics. This book stated that for a play to be a tragedy it should have certain characteristics. Miller has followed these Aristotelian features carefully and this can be seen in the play. Firstly, a prologue accompanies the play in order to make it easier for the audience to concentrate more on the actual lesson being taught by the play rather that getting confused. Alfieri acts as the chorus/narrator, the audiences interpreter of events; he is both commentator and participant in the play and punctuates the action. He introduces new themes and at the same time informs us about the present events and reminds us of past events. He creates interest in the audience by giving them clues and signs of future events, for example we know that the play will end in someones death as he mentions sat there as powerless as I, and watched it run its bloody course. A sense of inevitability is also created in Aristotelian tragedies that can be seen in the above dialogue where Alfieri feels powerless and suggests that this has happened before and is therefore retrospective. Another device known as hubris is also used which is a point in the play of no return and creates immense inevitability. The audience is made to feel a purging of emotions, which is a device known as catharsis. This along with pauses between dialogue and dramatic irony, which is when the audience knows more than the characters, creates tension and heightens their sympathy for some characters or heightens hatred for others. Stage Directions have been used well and they build on dialogue and show how the characters are feeling. Miller has also used stagecraft to an extensive level, and he uses the stage and effects such as lighting to symbolise conflict and other things. For example, the stage consists of the Carbone household and Alfieris law office which represents a conflict between natural and constitutional law, a main theme of the play. This is also an effective use of unity of time and place as the main places of action have been put closely to avoid confusion. Tragedies are also meant to teach and are therefore didactic. For example, community bonds and effects of betrayal are highlighted when Eddie recites to Catherine a fable about former neighbour Vinny Bolzano who had snitched to the immigration about his uncle. He uses this as a warning to Catherine and to make it clear to her the consequences of telling anyone about the illegal entry of Beatrices cousins. They should also involve universal truths so that people can relate to the play with real life. This play teaches many universal truths such as how to love, natural and constitutional law and the community. There is also a unity of time and place which is a device used so that it is easier for the audience to understand the action and so that they can focus on the morals taught by the play. Miller has carefully set up the tragic heros role in this play, in a way so that he matches the description of Aristotles tragedy characteristics. The protagonist isnt famous or rich, but he is seen to have the potential to become great. He also has a fall, which in this case is his death and is caused by a flaw or an error of judgement that is also occurs here. The fall also inspires pity and terror in the audience and in the process teaches them. The other characters are also affected by this fall but in the end there is a restoration of order.

Notes on American Literature Essay Example for Free

Notes on American Literature Essay Important figures:  ·Sir Walter Raleigh ? traveler, Elizabeths I lover, poet, soldier, died in Tower of London. A famous English writer, poet, courtier and explorer. He was responsible for establishing the second English colony in the New World (after Newfoundland was established by Sir Humphrey Gilbert nearly one year previously, August 5 1583) on June 4, 1584, at Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina. When the third attempt at settlement failed, the ultimate fate of the colonists was never authoritatively ascertained.  ·John Winthrop ? governor of Massachusetts. led a group of English Puritans to the New World, joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 and was elected their first governor on April 8, 1630. Between 1639 and 1648 he was voted out of governorship and re-elected a total of 12 times. Although Winthrop was a respected political figure, he was criticized for his obstinacy (stubborn) regarding the formation of a general assembly in 1634. Calvins influence:  ·theory of predestination, limited redemption  ·self trials to find destiny  ·the only hope was faith in God.  ·Gods goodwill ? irresistible grace  ·faith makes everyone good but good deeds without faith dont work  ·one should follow their destiny, ex. become a farmer, following destiny will make you successful, (wealthy) but you shouldnt dont spend money, invest it!  ·the holy act of making money for God Puritans were waiting for signs, they read ? books to read (the Bible), interpreted it, interpreted history in their own, Puritan way. Anything could be a sign (weather conditions, Indian attacks, diseases, famine, etc. ). Puritan faith:  ·grim, no paintings, no music  ·sermons were extremely important as they interpreted the Bible Michael Wigglesworth: (1631-1705)  ·wrote The Day of Doom (1662) his poem represents puritan thought of the time. Many of the puritans memorized it and used it to get people back into the church. They used it to teach children and lingering adults. This was the first best seller, even though this term wasnt used yet. It describes the Day of Judgment and the sentencing to punishment in hell of sinners and of infants who died before baptism. Samuel Danforth: (1626-1674)  ·In 1670, he was invited to give the annual election sermon to the General Assembly, which was afterwards printed as A Brief Recognition of New-Englands Errand into the Wilderness (about turning nature into civilization) and is regarded as one of the finest examples of the jeremiad form  ·jeremiad sermons explained things form the Bible, created context, it said that future is glorious because we can be better, improve ourselves History interpretations: Cotton Mather: (1663-1728).  ·Magnalia Christi Americana (about religious development of Massachusetts, and other nearby colonies in New England from 1620 to 1698); the English title was The Ecclesiastical History of New England (1702)  ·he also wrote descriptions of the Salem Witch Trials, in which he criticizes some of the methods of the court and attempts to distance himself from the event; account of the escape Hannah Dustan, one of the most famous to captivity narrative scholars; his complete catalogus of all the students that graduated from Harvard College, and story of the founding of Harvard College itself; and his assertions that Puritan slaveholders should do more to convert their slaves to Christianity  ·made a heritage, typological approach 08. 10. 2007 Religious texts: sermons ? instruments of communication between the minister and the people theological thesis chronicles (historical) Mary Rowlandson (1635-7 ? 1678)  ·She was a colonial American woman, who wrote a vivid description of the seven weeks and five days she spent living with Native Americans. Her short book,  ·A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1682), is considered a seminal work in the American literary genre of captivity narratives. The first phase of heroic period ? first 30 years, after that a serious problem occurred? experience of conversion, but not everyone did it so what to do with their children? 1662 ? Halfway Covenant (by Senate in Boston) ? salvation is heredity even if they didnt experienced it. 17th century was more flexible what led to great religious revival in the US, literary phenomenon, outburst of religious emotions ?  thus texts. George Whitefield ? a rhetorician, preacher, appealed to American people, triggered religious revival. The Great Awakening: (1735 ? 1750)  ·paradoxical movement, they considered themselves as only true Puritans but they were considered almost heretical movement, their enthusiasm had negative connotations, people thought they should be more rational  ·leaders: Jonathan Edwards who wrote a fire-and-brimstone sermon entitled Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741), he believed in Protestant dogma, he wanted people to experience real conversion, was against formal  sermons, he had a hypnotic way of teaching, appealing to emotions, he was forced to move and live in wilderness, died of smallpox. He was an active philosopher, tried to combine old religion with Lockes new approach to religion.  ·the movement (the Great Awakening) was the last significant moment to regain control by Puritans Edwards vs. Franklin ? they lived in the same time, enlightenment competing with the old heritage Franklin was born in Boston and he wanted to move to Philadelphia ? city of enlightenment, Quakers, city owned by William Penn. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)  ·Autobiography (written in 1771 1790) -Learning model behavior, proposed model human being, he would respond to the beauty of the world, and nature as a living presence of God, story of narrators progress from Boston to Philadelphia, devoted himself to common good, he made success count most (financial in your own eyes and prestige in others eyes) -12 commandments, its good to imitate Jesus and Socrates (although Socrates was a pagan and a suicider)  ·Poor Richards Almanac -was a yearly almanack published by Benjamin Franklin, who adopted the pseudonym of Poor Richard or Richard Saunders for this purpose. The publication appeared continuously from 1732 to 1758. It was a best seller for a pamphlet published in the American colonies; print runs reached 10,000 per year. Franklin, the American inventor, statesman, and publisher, achieved success with Poor Richards Almanack. Almanacks were very popular books in colonial America, with people in the colonies using them for the mixture of seasonal weather forecasts, practical household hints, puzzles, and other amusements they offered. Poor Richards Almanack was popular for all of these reasons, and also for its extensive use of wordplay, with many examples derived from the work surviving in the contemporary American vernacular. Addressed to farmers (almanacs), useful information about farming, weather, astronomy, moral advice, many proverbs, (for example God helps those who help themselves what is opposite to Puritan philosophy), Do good papers, colonies literature. Franklin developed practical procedure of self improvement day by day and step by step to be thoroughly rational human being. political literature ? debate between Federalists and anti-Federalists Americans identified with Ancient Rome, thats why the Declaration was born. The creators were educated, they read Greek, Roman works, developed sense of public virtue, conflict with the British Crown. Locke, Milton ? inspired colonies to develop ideology to sewer the ties with the Crown + no taxation without representation Thomas Paine (1737-1809)  ·in 1774 ? came to America as an old man, in 1776 he published Common sense, an anti-British book about Britain illegal financial abuse, appealed to Americans self-confidence, enough to be independent, to shape their destiny by determination, stamina, brains etc. The document denounced British rule and, through its immense popularity, contributed to stimulating the American Revolution. Hartford Wits (also called the Connecticut Wits) A group of American writers centered around Yale University and flourished in the 1780s and 1790s. Mostly graduates of Yale, they were conservative federalists who attacked their political opponents with satirical verse. Members included Joel Barlow, Timothy Dwight IV, David Humphreys, John Trumbull, Lemuel Hopkins, Richard Alsop, and Theodore Dwight. Works produced by the group include: The Anarchiad (published in the New Haven Gazette from 1786? 1787) The Political Greenhouse (Connecticut Courant, 1799) The Echo (American Mercury, 1791? 1805) John Trumbull (1756-1843)  ·believed in poetics, aesthetics, heroic couplet, satire. Member of a group of artists who painted important American historical events, Trumbull had an insiders view of the War, serving as a colonel in the Continental Army and aide to Gen. Washington in the American Revolution  ·The Progress of Dullness (1772-1773) n attack in three poems on educational methods of his time (three parts: 1. adventures of Tom Brainless, sent to college, he learns the art of preaching,; 2. Dick Hairbrain, a town fop, the son of a wealthy farmer, ridiculous in dress, empty of knowledge, but profound in swearing and cheap infidelity; 3. Miss Harriet Simper, slender female education, formerly in vogue, and the life of the coquette) Timothy Dwight (1752-1817)  ·continued Wigglesworth tradition  ·The Conquest of Canaan (pub. 1785) ? ambitious epic in eleven books, about George Washington war of independence  ·Greenfield Hill (1794) descriptive poem about small New England town, turned by Dwight into ideal place to live, with common wellbeing, where people take care of education, etc. Its also a historical poem, about Peacock (Indian tribe) war and massacre of Indians  ·Travels in New England and New York (1820-1822) huge publication, sort of a tourist guide, covers areas of Southern New England. He loved the place and wanted to commemorate it. Joel Barlow (1754-1812)  ·graduate of Yale, he died in Zarnowiec in Poland of pneumonia while he was on his journey to the Emperor in France  ·Poem, Spoken at the Public Commencement at Yale College (1781) ? becoming American diplomat Barlow witnessed French return to France after the war;  ·The Vision of Columbus (1787)? poem about future glory of America, Columbus visited by an Angel in prison (like in Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius where the author is visited by incarnation of philosophy; parallel of Columbus)  ·1807 ? Barlow changed his religious, political option, became enthusiast of the French Revolution;  ·1st American poem ? Barlows first attempt Phillis Wheatley (1753-1784)  ·black slave woman from Senegambia, purchased by Boston Whitley (sort of philanthropist). She managed to learn English, extremely gifted girl, learnt to read (Milton, Homer), write. She was allowed to study, learn Latin. She started to write good poetry, praised by George Washington, but Jefferson didnt like her poetry ? point of controversy. She expressed sort of gratitude, makes references to Greek poetry, ancient Rome, neo-classical poetry, giving a testimony that she decided to adopt, make her way to elite, in England she was a well known poet. She died young. 15. 10. 2007 Michel Guillaume (also known as Hector Saint John de Crevecoeur) (1735? 1813)  ·French-American writer, fought on the French side in the French and Indian War, then moved to New York State, becoming a naturalized citizen. After travels through various colonies, he settled on a farm in Orange Co, New York.  ·wrote a number of essays and books which portrayed life in the New World  ·Letters from an American Farmer (1784) where he describes conditions on the frontier, says that in America men are free, its a beautiful, natural country of liberty. Sketches of the 18th century America ? slaves, animals, community, style of slavery practice in the South, American farmers are not happy because of the lies of Independence. Early American novels had to compete with a large amount of English novels. They were also fiction and lies. SENTIMENTAL NOVELS William Hill Brown (1765-1793)  ·The Power of Sympathy (1789) ? first American novel written by first American novelist. Controversial for its time, displays the themes of seduction, betrayal, and incest. Its a moral novel written in letters. Its against immoral behavior, sort of educational guide against seduction. Plot: written in correspondence: several letters between friends and lovers. two young people fall in love, but in fact theyre brother and sister. They woman kills herself because she had fallen in love with her own brother and then the man devastated commits suicide. Susanna Haswell Rowson (1762-1824)  ·Charlotte Temple (1791) first American bestseller ? seduced young lady gives a birth to a child, Lucy, then dies. Successful novel but Susanna didnt make money for it as the novel was published illegally. It is characterized by emphatic moralism and melodramatic language, the idea that women should take care of each other. Written to protect young women from the pain of social rejection, includes theme of seduction and betrayal. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)  ·Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady (1748) epistolary novel, tells the tragic story of a heroine whose quest for virtue is continually thwarted by her family. It is commonly cited as the longest novel in the English language. Clarissa is a beautiful and virtuous young lady whose family has become very wealthy only in recent years and is now eager to become part of the aristocracy. Her relatives attempt to force her to marry a rich but heartless man against her will and, more importantly, against her own sense of virtue. Desperate to remain free, she is tricked by a young gentleman of her acquaintance, Lovelace, into escaping with him. However, she refuses to marry him, longing ? unusual for a girl in her time ? to live by herself in peace. Lovelace, in the meantime, has been trying to arrange a fake marriage all along, and considers it a sport to add Clarissa to his long list of conquests. However, as he is more and more impressed by Clarissa, he finds it difficult to keep convincing himself that truly virtuous women do not exist. The continuous pressure he finds himself under, combined with his growing passion for Clarissa, drives him to extremes and eventually he rapes her. Clarissa manages to escape from him, but becomes dangerously ill. When she dies, however, it is in the full consciousness of her own virtue, and  trusting in a better life after death. Lovelace, tormented by what he has done but still unable to change, dies in a duel with Clarissas cousin. Clarissas relatives finally realise the misery they have caused, but discover that they are too late and Clarissa has already died.  ·Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) is an epistolary novel. It tells the story of a maid named Pamela whose master, Mr. B. , makes unwanted advances towards her. She rejects him continually, and her virtue is eventually rewarded when he shows his sincerity by proposing an equitable marriage to her. In the second part of the novel, Pamela attempts to accommodate herself to upper-class society and to build a successful relationship with him. The story was widely mocked at the time for its perceived licentiousness and it inspired Henry Fielding (among many others) to write two parodies: Shamela (1741), about Pamelas true identity; and Joseph Andrews (1742), about Pamelas brother. Hannah Webster Foster (1758-1840)  ·The Coquett,; or, The History of Eliza Wharton (1797) is an epistolary novel. Published anonymously until 1866, 26 years after Websters death. It was one of the best-selling novels of its time. The novel is a fictionalized account of the story of Elizabeth Wharton, the daughter of a clergyman who died after giving birth to a stillborn, illegitimate child at a roadside tavern. Writers and preachers of the day blamed her demise on the fact that she read romance novels, which gave her improper ideas and turned her into a coquette. Foster responded with The Coquette, which provided a more sympathetic portrayal of Wharton and described the difficulties faced by middle-class women. Tabitha Tenney (1762-1837)  ·Female Quixotism (1801) ? the heroine goes mad, she has a strange idea of love (all men are the heroes of romances). She had some candidates but she doesnt like them. The book is rather a parody. The woman cant get married, she makes wrong choices, rejects good man and accepts the dishonest ones. HORROR STORIES ? THE GOTHIC NOVEL Ann Radcliffe (1764 1823)  ·pioneer of the gothic novel. English writer.  ·The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) follows the fortunes of Emily St. Aubert who suffers, among other misadventures, the death of her father, supernatural terrors in a gloomy castle, and the machinations of an Italian brigand. Often cited as the archetypal Gothic novel, Charles B. Brown (1771 1810).  ·he wanted to be professional writer but people didnt want to read him. He quitted and became a political writer. He was the first American gothic writer.  ·Wieland, or, the Transformation (1798) ? Theodore Wieland is master of a landed estate, which he has inherited from his father, an immigrant from Germany. Wieland Senior was a man of strange inclinations who, having built a temple on a hillock in the grounds, devoted to his own idiosyncratic religion, later dies mysteriously of spontaneous combustion (samospalenie). Wieland inherits his fathers god-fearing disposition. However the rural idyll he shares with his wife, children, sister and best friend is shattered when he becomes prey to the trickery of Carwin: a mysterious ventriloquist (brzuchomowca) who has moved to the area after leading an undercover life of deception in Europe. Under the influence of religious mania and Carwins trickery Wieland kills his wife and children as a demonstration of his obedience to a divine voice. In court he expresses no remorse for his deeds and later escapes from prison to attempt the life of his sister, before being stopped in his tracks by the command of a final divine voice, which in reality emanates from Carwin. Wieland then commits suicide. The story is told as a first person narrative by Wielands sister Clara. As the story proceeds her initial calm and rational disposition is sorely tried by the uncanny and bloody events of the story, which reduces her, by the end, to a state of near mania. Her relations with the deceiver Carwin are ambiguous, veering between attraction and repulsion as the story unfolds. Apparently the novel was based on the true story of a multiple murder which took place at Tomhannock, New York in 1781.  ·Ormond; or, the Secret Witness (1799) ?  about lady who kills her seducer with a penknife. The novel engages with many of the periods popular debates about womens education, marriage, and the morality of violence, while the plot revolves around the Gothic themes of seduction, murder, incest, impersonation, romance and disease. Set in post-revolutionary Philadelphia, Ormond examines the prospects of the struggling nation by tracing the experiences of Constantia, a young virtuous republican who struggles to survive when her fathers business is ruined by a confidence man, and her friends and neighbors are killed by a yellow fever epidemic.  ·Arthur Mervyn (1799) Arthur Mervyn suffers form yellow fever, discovered by Dr. Stevens who invites him home. Mr. Wortley comes over to Dr. Stevens, recognizes Arthur Mervyn, and reacts with extreme displeasure. Dr. Stevens demands an explanation. Mervyn begins to tell his story. This is the frame, nearly three quarters of the book bring Mervyns adventures up to this moment in time.  ·Edgar Huntly; or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (1799) The story of a young man who sleepwalks each night and is a threat to himself and others, unable to control his baser passions. Set outside Philadelphia in 1787, the book is a metaphor for the founding of a new nation, but can be read on a literal level as an American Gothic novel. Placed in the middle of wilderness. Young man wakes up in a dark hotel room, he doesnt know how he got there, he has a tomahawk. Kills a panther and eats it raw. Eventually returns home. Isaac Mitchell (1835-1893)  ·Alonzo and Melissa (1804) ? gothic castle on Long Island. Explanation that the castle was built by Puritans. ADVENTURE NOVELS Royall Tyler (1757-1826)  ·The Algerine Captive (1797) about a Harvard-educated American schoolteacher turned doctor, who was captured by Barbary (the Algerians) pirates in 1788 and sold into slavery in the City of Algiers. Description of conditions in which black slaves were kept on ships. At the end the character returns to USA.  ·The Contrast (1790) is an American play in the tradition of the English Restoration comedies of the seventeenth century; it takes its cue from Sheridans The School for Scandal, a British comedy of manners that had revived that tradition a decade before. Royall uses the form to satirize Americans who follow British fashions and indulge in British vices. Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748-1816)  ·Modern Chivalry: Containing the Adventures of Captain John Farrago and Teague ORegan, His servant (1792) is a rambling, satirical American novel. The book is arguably the first important work of fiction about the American frontier and called to the West what Don Quixote was to Europe. a more thoroughly American book than any written before 1833. The model of modern chivalry was Don Quixote they travel all over US. Cultural change was in Boston or around Boston in 18th century. New cultural force ? Unitarianism. Dutch Bishop, rejected the dogma of the predestination, unificated the Great Trinity to one God Father. Unitarians believed that people can improve themselves without grace of God. New, much more optimistic model of human being began. Sermons ? people should show likeness to God by practicing virtues, trying to be good. Henry Ware educated at Harvard College, Professor at Harvard, precipitating a controversy between Unitarians and more conservative Calvinists. He took part in the formation of the Harvard Divinity School and the establishment of Unitarianism there in the following decades, publishing his debates with eminent Calvinists in the 1820s. William Emerson In 1804, Emerson founded the Anthology Club, a Boston literary society, and wrote articles for the clubs The Monthly Anthology. This publication was the forerunner of the North American Review, Americas leading literary journal, and the Clubs reading room led to the founding in 1807 of the Boston Athenaeum. Joseph Stevens Buckminster Upon his graduation, he became minister of the Brattle Street Church in Boston, and quickly launched an almost legendary career of eloquent preaching, biblical scholarship, and literary production which set the tone for the pattern of the minister as a man of letters. In 1801 he traveled to Europe and returned with books. He was the most brilliant member of the Anthology Club, an early editor of the Monthly Anthology, and in 1811 was appointed Dexter Lecturer at Harvard where he occupied the first Chair in Scripture. Buckminsters influence on his contemporaries was striking. His mastery of the emerging New Criticism from German Biblical scholars led to his rational investigation of the Bible, subjecting its text to the same scrupulous scholarly investigation given other texts from antiquity. Founded in Boston in 1815, The North American Review (NAR) was the first literary magazine in the United States, and was published continually until 1940, when publication was suspended due to World War II. The Reviews first editor, William Tudor (1779-1830), and other founders had been members of Bostons Anthology Club, and launched The North American Review to foster a genuine American culture. In its first few years it was published poetry, fiction, and miscellaneous essays on a bi-monthly schedule, but in 1818 it became a quarterly with more focused contents intent on improving society and on elevating culture. The Review promoted the improvement of public education and administration, with reforms in secondary schools, sound professional training of doctors and lawyers, rehabilitation of prisoners at the state penitentiary, and government by educated experts. Its editors and contributors included such literary and political New Englanders as John Adams, George Bancroft, Nathaniel Bowditch, William Cullen Bryant, Lewis Cass, Edward T. Channing, Caleb Cushing, Richard Henry Dana, Alexander Hill Everett, Edward Everett, Jared Sparks, George Ticknor, Gulian C. Verplanck, Daniel Webster. 22. 10. 2007 Norton Anthology ? early times, complaining about American literature, being poor, inferior to British, what should be done to improve Madame de Stael (1766-1817)  ·quickly translated into English, pub. in New York; as a French-speaking Swiss author living in Paris and abroad. She influenced literary tastes in Europe at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries Walter Cherning ? in North American review, tried to apply Madames ideas to American context The Analectic ? literary magazine There was no a really popular, one author in American unknown for Europe (in literature) until Irving. Washington Irving (1783 1859)  ·One of the first noted American authors to be highly acclaimed in Europe during his life time, Irving was a prolific author of fiction and non-fiction. He wrote numerous short stories, biographies, histories, and tales of his travels. His characters Ichabod Crane and Rip van Winkle are now icons of popular American culture, and many of Irvings works have inspired adaptations to the stage and film.  ·Washington, while born sickly, was a mischievous and adventuresome young man, sneaking out at night to attend plays and frustrating his pious parents, especially his father. He roamed the city and environs, dreaming of far-off placesdreams that were partly fueled by one of his favourite books, Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe. Travelling would become a life-long passion. Although he was not an avid student, he studied law and became a clerk.  ·Suffering from ill-health off and on for many years, in 1804 Irving set sail from New York Harbour, the first of many trips abroad: he was going to a spa in Bordeaux, France to treat a lung ailment. He learned French, made many friends, travelled through Europe. In 1806 he returned to America.  ·with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding created a semi-monthly periodical World of New York to compete with the more sombre news publications of the day. While it was short-lived The Salmagundi Paper; or, the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Laucelot Langstaff, Esq. And Others. (1809) was met with great success. The Jonathan Swift-like satire and tongue-in-cheek pokes at politics, culture, and society was to instruct the young, reform the old, correct the town, and castigate the age.  ·The Salmagundi Papers (1809) satirical work by Washington Irving (under the pen name Diedrich Kinckerbocker), with the title being derived from the dish. The work is nowadays remembered especially for first popularizing the sobriquet Gotham for New York City.  ·In a similar vein Irving composed his first novel, Knickerbockers History of New York (1809). A burlesque and comprehensive weaving of fact and fiction, his History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty is narrated by Diedrich Knickerbocker and won Irving much acclaim at home and abroad.  ·Irvings short stories, first printed in America under his pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon between the years 1819-20 were collected in The Crayon Papers and The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. They contain two of Irvings most famous tales: Rip van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. These stories were wildly popular in America and soon too in Europe.  ·His next novel was Bracebridge Hall, or, The Humorists, A Medley (1822). Published under the pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon, centers on an English manor, its inhabitants, and the tales they tell. Interspersed with witty, evocative sketches of country life among the English nobility is the well-known tale The Stout Gentleman and stories based on English, French, and Spanish folklore, vividly recounted with Irvings inimitable blend of elegance and colloquial dash. They include Dolph Heyliger the story of a New Yorker who encounters a haunted house, ghosts, and a buried treasure.  ·It was followed by Tales of a Traveller (1824), which Irving considered one of his finer works. A last experiment with fiction before he turned to the writing of history, biography, and adaptation of folktales. Arranged in four sections, the miscellany of short fiction reveals elements of comedy and melodrama new to Irvings work. The first three groups of stories have a European background, while the final five stories, supposedly found among the papers of the late Diedrich Knickerbocker, are set in New York and feature pirates and buried treasure.  ·In 1826 Irving moved to Madrid, Spain, where he set to writing his highly lauded The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829), and Tales of the Alhambra (1832) rich compendium of tales, deftly interwoven with historical accounts and picturesque sketches, was assembled from Spanish and Moorish folklore, history, guidebooks, and anecdotes of Irvings experiences among the local residents. The forty-nine pieces range from stories based on Granadas colorful history to graceful vignettes of its contemporary scene, from romantic descriptions of the local architecture and terrain to medieval tales of the supernatural.  ·Astoria: Anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains (1836). . I have felt anxious to get at the details of their adventurous expeditions among the savage tribes that peopled the depths of the wilderness. It explores Irvings impressions from travels in Canada and America as guest of John Jacob Astors Northwest Fur Company. Irving expresses his sympathy to the displaced, and dispossessed savage Native American Peoples in such stories as Philip of Pokanoket, Traits of Indian Character, and Origin of the White, the Red, and the Black Men. first American Literary Account of the Wild West, surprised that his view is different from Ch. Brownings (who portrayed the Westerners as wild animals). Irving portrays them as human, describes buffalo hunting (exaggerated a bit as he describes himself hunting). Counts as the earliest literary description of the West.  ·The Adventures of Captain Bonneville (1837) Drawing on Bonnevilles own journals, Washington Irving chronicles the exploits and adventures of Captain James Bonneville, one of the earliest explorers of the American West, detailing his various journeys with mountain man Joseph Rutherford Walker; their discovery of Yosemite, Walker Pass, and the Bonneville Salt Flats; and life among the Native Americans and trappers of the West.  ·Irvings last finished work, something he had been working on for many years but kept putting aside for other more pressing projects is his Life of George Washington (1859).  ·The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) The story is set circa 1790 in the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town, New York, in a secluded glen called Sleepy Hollow. It tells the story of Ichabod Crane, a lanky schoolmaster from Connecticut, who competes with Abraham Brom Bones Van Brunt, the town rowdy, for the hand of 18-year-old Katrina Van Tassel, only daughter of a wealthy farmer. As Crane leaves a party at the Van Tassel home on an autumn night, he is pursued by the Headless Horseman, supposedly the ghost of a Hessian trooper who lost his head to a cannonball during some nameless battle of the American Revolutionary War and who rides forth to the scene of battle in nightly quest of his head. Crane disappears from town, leaving Katrina to marry Brom Bones, who was to look exceedingly knowing whenever the story of Ichabod was related.  ·Rip Van Winkle (1819) The story of Rip Van Winkle is set in the years immediately before (the early to mid-1770s) and after the American Revolutionary War (the early to mid-1790s). Rip Van Winkle, a villager of Dutch descent, lives in a nice village at the foot of New Yorks Catskill Mountains. An amiable man whose home and farm suffer from his lazy neglect, he is loved by all but his wife. One autumn day he escapes his naggi.

Iraq and India: Energy Trade Relations

Iraq and India: Energy Trade Relations Statement of the Problem The economic openness is the reality of today’s developed world. The asymmetrical distribution of resources and factor of production has required the economist and social scientists for mutual interaction and trade cooperation for the development of the global economy. The trade and economic cooperation between the two countries is more important these days because of the essential for formulating a feasible and beneficial strategy for the development of the both countries. The bilateral trade and Economic Cooperation between Republic of Iraq and Republic of India are unique. The trade and other related relationships between India and Iraq have its own significance for the economic development of both these countries. Both countries have been traditionally collaborative and had strategic and friendly relations. India has supported a free, democratic, pluralistic, federal and united Iraq  [1]. India-Iraqi ties flourished only after India had started cultivating. Iraq, in bila teral terms on the basis of mutuality of interests in the political sphere and complementarities interests in economic sphere subsequently. It is significant to note that Iraq was one of the few countries in West Asia with which India had established relations very early at the embassy level  [2]. However, India’s economic cooperation with Iraq was stronger than other west Asian countries due to its geographical location and natural resources. The looming threat of wars in Iraq had continuous uncertainty and a negative impact on India’s as well as global trade markets. India’s trade with Iraq tremendously weakened during war periods  [3]. But India’s focus on a strengthened and multi-faceted relationship with new Iraqis an outcome of the significant changes in the political and economic relations between two countries. India’s has been cooperating continuously with Iraq on the road to recovery in the post Saddam Iraq. Indo Iraq economic coopera tion was slow Initial Stage of Post Saddam Government. With the democratically elected government of Iraq in year 2005, it received a strongly re-boost to restart trade and cooperation with India. India actively supports the ongoing reconstruction efforts in Iraq  [4]. Both countries Explore cooperation in e-Governance during Deputy Foreign Minister of Iraq, Mr Labeed Majeed Abbawi, visited India on 17-22 May, 2011. Indian business applied for contracts for restart trade and cooperation. Since there is revival in potential for Indo-Iraqi trade and commerce, a number of steps have been taken at the policy level that can positively impact Indian companies looking to do business with Iraq. At a broad strategic level, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) has been signed in 2013 between Iraq’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and India’s Ministry of External Affairs to update and discuss bilateral and international relations of interest. The two countries are looking to enhance the energy trading relationship, which forms a significant part of overall trade between India and Iraq. The government of India has proposed that it should be ‘strategic partnership’, which could include aspects like oil exploration, petrochemical complexes and fertiliser plants. To this extent, Iraq and India have signed MoU on Cooperation in the field of Energy to make further progress in the relationship in the sector. India aims to change the nature of the relationship with Iraq on energy from a buyer-seller one into one with equity partnership. Iraq and India have also signed MoU on Water Resource Development and Management that looks to cooperate and share expertise in the field on national and international levels  [5]. Such as Indian business applied for contracts for reconstruction projects to coalition provisional authority and more recently the activities of Iraqi business in India have been growing rapidly  [6]. H owever Project exports are perhaps the most significant factors in India’s economic relations with Iraq as well as other gulf countries. They are significant not only for their trade generating effect but also for a different kind of interaction they render possible in India’s external relations  [7]. Today in the globalised world the economies of Iraq have assumed a new economic as well as strategic importance for India. The economic reforms in India resulted becoming one of the fastest growing economies of the world. The growth of India’s economy has stimulated growth in the industrial sector. The higher growth in India’s industrial sector has further resulted in significant rise in energy demand. As India is not self sufficient in its energy requirement, major portion of her energy demand is fulfilled by Iraq petroleum imports. Thus in a situation of growing industrial output and demand for energy, India’s dependence on Iraq would significantly increase. Presently Iraq has become second largest supplier of oil to India only after Saudi Arabia. Thus the trade relations between India and Iraq are very crucial for the growth of Indian economy. It was reported that in India crude oil imports account for more than 96 Percent of her total imports from Iraq. This makes India to face severe deficits in her trade balance with Iraq. But the emergence of rich market of Iraq offered opportunities to India for balanced bilateral trade in 2012. Iraq requires India’s exports in terms of more goods, items, instruments and equipments and more investment in infrastructure, agriculture, machinery, power, healthcare and telecommunication. India’s former Commerce and Industry minister Anand Sharma promised him to encourage Indian businessmen to explore business opportunities in Iraq  [8]. India is appearing to correct this deficit with new investment opportunities, specifically in the energy sector, in one of the fastest growing economies in the region. India is also looking to counter the growing presence of China in Iraq. Beijing has already invested heavily in various projects around Iraq, and has even built its own airport near the Iran-Iraq border from where it ferries its workers to various oil fields in the southern part of the coun try  [9]. In the immediate future, India is looking at increasing its import of Iraqi crude and a senior minister in the Iraqi government has offered to up his country’s oil exports to India by as much as 30 per cent. That Indian oil companies shifted from Iranian to Iraqi oil in 2011-12. In recent year, bilateral trade between both the countries accelerated through Indian government maintained the huge demand of Iraqi crude oil. On the other hand Tubes pipe of iron steel products; Meat of bovine animals, frozen products and Indian basmati rice has found good markets in Iraq, overtake US long gained rice market since 2010. The market for exporting basmati rice would increase due to Iraq’s preference for the products and on the other hand Indian market provides a cheaper imports option. An important step to foster stronger economic bilateral ties between countries took place in an interactive session on certification of goods and exports potential of Iraq, organised by federation of Indian export organizations (FIEO) in April 2012 in New Delhi. Hussein Ali Rajab, the commercial councillor, embassy of Iraq, felt that India exports to this market should increase from $ 750 million to about $ 3 billion by 2015. It is directed that all Indian goods imported to Iraq must be certified by their designated inspection agency so that the buyer can release their goods in Iraq. The previous year, Indian tea exports suffered a setback as more than 200 containers of Indian tea that were being exported to Iraq were barred and returned due to quality issues. Indian steel firm Jindal saw won a 25 year contract to build and run a factory for manufacture oil and gas pipelines in south Iraq. This $ 198 million deal was part of Iraqi efforts to revive its long deserted industrial sector. As part of Indian effort in infrastructure development in Iraq, reliance Globalcom, in projects collaboration with Iraqi telecommunications and post company (ITPC), launched the a l-Faw cable landing station (CLS) for providing telecom service in the country. It is set to enhance internet speed for Iraqi domestic consumer. But presently, demand of India’s Indian productto Iraq and mutual business ties temporarily declined due to Iraqi political climate insurgency  [10]. India’s expatriate in Iraq, once substantial has dwindled to almost nothing. In response to high levels of violence, the Indian government in 2004 banned labour brokers from hiring people for Iraq. This ban was for six months and then was extended from time to time. The extended period of the ban was valid up to April 30, 2010 based on the recommendation of the ministry’s Gulf division. it had been decided not to extend the ban beyond April 30,2010. On 4 May 2010 Indian government lifted the ban on grant of emigration clearance for Indians wishing to travel to Iraq but cautioned that people should take care of their security while working or visiting the oil-rich country. After that Indians can now legally travel to Iraq for work  [11]. Lots of Indians (both legal and illegal migrants) came to Iraq via United Arab Emirates (UAE) and other gulf countries in the past 5 years  [12].More than 80,000 Indians are living in Iraq despite an earlier government advisory again st travel to the country that has been in turmoil since Saddam Hussein was ousted  [13]. The lifting of the ban was termed a step towards normalization of relations between India and Iraq  [14]. Indian Migration to Iraq got disturbed in June 2014 due to political as well as economic crisis in Iraq  [15]. [1] Annual Report 2011-12,Ministry of Overseas, GOI [2] Ajay N Jha, Indo-Iraq Relations: 1947-86: Need For Fress Iniciatives, in West Asia and Indias   Foreign Policy, ed. Verinder Grover( New DElhi: Deep Deep Publications, 1992), pp 437-461. [3] Ibid [4] Opcit 1 [5] Opportunities for India in Iraq’s restructuring, Spacesence News. Feb 06, 2014.  http://www.spacesense.in/news/13 (accessed June 2014, 27). [6] Azhar Muhammad, Indo-Iraq Economic Cooperation in Post Saddam Period, Journal of WestAsian Studies (Deptt. of West Asian Studies, AMU, Aligarh) Vol.23 (2009): pp 148-161. [7] Girijesh C Pant, India-Gulf Economic Relations: A Profiles, in West Asia and Indias Foreign   Policy, edited by Verinder Grover (New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications, 1992) p 65. [8] Iraq Calls for Balanced Bilateral Trade With India, Outlook, FEB 29, 2012. http://www.outlookindia.com/news/article/Iraq-Calls-for-Balanced-Bilateral-Trade-With-India/753569  (accessed June 12, 2014) [9] Kabir Taneja, India looks for larger presence in Iraq, June 22, 2013. http://www.sunday-guardian.com/business/india-looks-for-larger-presence-in-iraq (accessed June 21, 2014). [10] Sonia Roy, Iraq In Persian Gulf 2013: Indias Relations With the Region, by P.R. Kumaraswamy, pp 115-17. New Delhi: Sage Publication, 2014. [11] India lifts ban on travel to Iraq, The Siasai Daily, May 4, 2010. http://www.siasat.com/english/news/india-lifts-ban-travel-iraq-0 (accessed May 23, 2014). [12] Working in Iraq not worth the risks, says Indian worker in the country, IBNLive, June 16,  2014. http://m.ibnlive.com/news/world/working-in-iraq-not-worth-the-risks-says-indian-worker-in-the-country/479447-2.html (accessed August 2, 2014). [13] â€Å"India lifts ban on travel,† The Siasat Daily, May 4, 2010http://www.siasat.com/english/news/india-lifts-ban-travel-iraq-0 (accessed May 23, 2014). [14] Himanshi Dhawan, Ban on Indians travelling to Iraq lifted, January 9, 2010. http://timesofindia. indiatimes.com/india/Ban-on-Indians-travelling-to-Iraq-lifted/articlehow/6025044.cms(accessed  June 21, 2014) [15] â€Å"Indian faces the Iraq test,† The Hindu, June 21, 2014. http://www.hindu.com/opinion/editional/India-faces-the-Iraq-test/articles6134195 ece (accessed July 12, 2014). India: A Mixed Economy India: A Mixed Economy The present chapter is devoted to the introductory issues relating to the role of Direct tax laws in the development of International Business. Focus has also been laid on the need to present a hospitable environment for encouraging foreign investment and to protect the revenue base of the nation. The chapter has been classified on the following lines. 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Indian Tax Structure 1.3 Basic Principles Of International Taxation 1.4 International Business: Concepts, Scope And Structure 1.5 Need For International Business 1.6 Review Of Existing Studies 1.7 Statement Of The Problem 1.8 Objective Of The Study 1.9 Scope Of The Study 1.10 Limitations 1.11 Hypothesis 1.12 Research Methodology1.1 INTRODUCTION Rapid economic development happens to be one of the primary objectives of all developing economies and India is not an exception. This is possible mainly through the accumulation and proper use of capital. The developing economies lack adequate basic infrastructural facilities. In order to develop these, the government takes upon itself the responsibility for building up capital formation, through sound taxation policies. India is a mixed economy. Liberalization, privatization and globalization have further strengthened the role of tax policy in economic development. Both the public and the private sectors have to play an important role in ensuring satisfactory growth rate. For this, the government has to work out and provide adequate avenues for raising funds by private enterprises. This envisages the need to provide adequate incentives, rebates and reliefs in the form of tax deductions to stimulate the private sector. Here again a sound tax policy and a robust tax structure is inevitable. In order to accomplish the above objectives, the government enacted the Income Tax Act, 1961 repealing the act of 1922. The present Act has realized due weight age of taxation of International Business which has assumed much importance to the tax collector as well as to the tax payers. 1.2 INDIAN TAX STRUCTURE The Indian direct tax policy is structured in such a way as to ensure high progressivity both in terms of tax on income as well as on wealth. The act ensures that higher the level of income, higher shall be the tax incidence. By virtue of entry 82 of List I of the seventh schedule of the constitution of India, the Parliament is empowered to levy tax on income other than agricultural income. Therefore with due exercise of this power the Parliament has enacted the Income-Tax Act 1961. It is a comprehensive act embodied with 298 sections, divided in XXIII chapters, fourteen schedules, along with yearly Finance Acts coupled with Income Tax Rules, 1962. 1.3 PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL TAXATION There are two basic principle in International taxation 1) Residence Based Taxation- The principle of residence-based taxation asserts that individuals are taxable in the country or tax jurisdiction in which they establish their residence or domicile, regardless of the source of income. In the case of companies or firms, the place of incorporation or the place where control or management is exercised is deemed to be the place of residence. The principle of residence-based taxation of income envisages the taxation of global income. Accordingly, India follows residence based taxation in case of Residents. 2) Source Based Taxation- There are individuals/entities whose residence is in one country but their business is actually carried on in another country and their income is earned in the latter country. The principle of residence-based taxation would be inappropriate in such cases. So the country which provides the opportunity and facilities to generate income or profits should be given the right to tax such income. This forms the underlying basis of the principle of source-based taxation of income. India follows source based taxation in case of non-resident. 1.4 INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS; CONCEPT, SCOPE AND STRUCTURE International Business is a term used to collectively describe all commercial transactions (private and government, sales, investments, logistics and transportation) that take place between two or more regions, countries and nation beyond their political boundary. Private companies, usually undertake such transaction for profit while government undertakes them for profit and political reasons. It also refers to all those business activities that involve cross border transactions of goods, services, resources between two or more nations. International Business not only refers to multinational companies having deals with foreign entities and making headways into the foreign market. It also involves small and independent companies or entities engaging in business with international clients through the medium of internet. International Business comprises a large and growing portion of the worlds total business. Almost all large or small companies are affected by global events and competition because most of the companies sell output and/or secure supplies from foreign countries or compete against foreign products and services. A multinational company would always consider its: MISSION i.e. what the company will seek to do and become over the long term. OBJECTIVES i.e. specific performance targets to fulfil its mission. STRATEGY i.e. the means to fulfil its objectives. The following factors have given a boost to the growth of International Business. Rapid increase in and expansion of technology Liberalization of government policies relating cross-border movement of trade and resources Development of the institutions needed to support and facilitate international trade Increased global competition An International Business may take any of the following mode: Import and export (goods and services) Tourism and transportation Licensing and franchising Turnkey operations Management contracts Direct and portfolio investment And much more MERCHANDISE EXPORTS are tangible goods sent out of a country. MERCHANDISE IMPORTS are tangible goods brought in. Imports and exports are countrys key international economic transaction. SERVICES are earning other than those derived from goods. Earning received are service exports and earnings paid are service imports. INTERNATIONAL TOURISM and TRANSPORTATION are important sources of revenue for airlines, shipping companies, travel agencies, and hotel. Greece and Norway is earning a significant amount of revenue from transportation. Bahamian country is dependent more on earning from foreign tourism than earning from the export of merchandise. U.S. has in recent years earned more from foreign tourism than from its exports of agricultural goods. TURNKEY OPERATIONS means construction or any other operation, performed under contract of facilities that are transferred to the owner as and when they are ready to begin operating. Licensing means use of assets such as trade-marks, patents, copyrights or expertise under contracts. This generates earnings called royalties. FRANCHISING is a way of doing business in which one party (the franchisor) allows another party (the franchisee) the use of trademark that is an essential asset for the franchisees business. The franchisee is also assisted on a continuing basis in the operation of business by providing components, management services and technology. Foreign investment involves ownership of foreign property in exchange for financial return. A FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT is one that gives the investor a controlling interest in a foreign company. A PORTFOLIO INVESTMENT is an investment that gives the investor a non-controlling interest in a company or ownership of a loan to another party. CONTRACT MANUFACTURING it refers to a type of International Business where a firm enters into a contract with a few local manufacturers in foreign countries to get certain components or goods produced as per its specification. It is also known as OUTSOURCING. It can take three major forms; Production of certain components such as automobile component to be used later for producing final products. Assembly of components into final product such as assembly of hard disc, mother board, floppy disc drive etc. Complete manufacture of the product such as garments. The major international companies such as NIKE, REEBOK, LEVIS, get their products or components produced in the developing countries under contract manufacturing. 1.5 NEED FOR INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS International Business helps both the countries to earn foreign exchange which can be used for meeting imports of capital goods, technology, petroleum products and fertilizers and consumer product and services at affordable price. International Business operates on a simple principle -produce what a country can produce more efficiently, and trade the surplus production so generated with other countries. If such an exchange pool of goods and services is distributed equitably amongst nations, it benefits all the trading nations. Producing solely for the purposes of domestic consumption restricts a countrys prospects for growth and employment. International Business helps developing countries to execute their plan to produce on a larger scale and thus create employment for people as well. International trade of goods and services has made it possible for the world community to consume goods and services produced in other countries. A number of corporate entities have improved prospects of their growth by plunging into overseas markets International Business can be more profitable than the domestic business. When the domestic prices are lower, business firms can earn more profits by selling their products in countries where prices are higher. Many firms set up production capacities for their products which are in excess of demand in the domestic market. By planning overseas expansion and procuring orders from foreign entities, they use their surplus production capacities and improve the profitability of their operation. Production on a larger scale leads to economies of scale, which in turn lowers production cost. 1.6 REVIEW OF EXISTING STUDIES No study seems to have been made in India to cover the various aspects of Taxation of International Business. This section presents a brief review of some of the important studies conducted on the subject of taxation. These studies would provide background material for the proposed work. Goenka (1983)1 emphasized the need for evolving an optimum direct tax planning process for our business entities, which will enable them to maximize their after-tax profits, so that these are available for establishing new industries and expanding the existing ones. Tax planning has emerged as an important tool for management decisions beginning with the settling up of an enterprise to the level of strategic, project and operational planning constituted at different stages of development of an enterprise and at different levels of policy formulation and operation. Tax planning would in no way lead to tax loss to the national exchequer; as the corporate sector progresses at a faster pace, Government can not only recoup the tax loss but improve upon the same. Agarwal (1987)2 has emphasized on tax incentives as an instrument of Fiscal policy to achieve the stated objectives of mobilizing saving and inducing investment. In the opinion of author, tax incentives offer a relatively straight forward means of promoting industrialization compared to other long term or complex measures that are more difficult to implement. However, tax incentive may not be used and may not yield the desired results. So tax incentives may be complemented with some of the other alternative measures to achieve the desired results. The study also revealed that the type, size and magnitude of tax incentives offered in different countries vary widely depending upon the needs and aspirations of their people. So incentive programme in India has undergone a number of changes from time to time and has a wide coverage. India is offering largest number of tax incentives as a part of its tax incentives package. Agarwal (1991)3 observed that significance of personal income tax can be judged in terms of its share in total tax revenue or national income. The contribution of direct taxes in general and of personal income tax in particular to the total tax receipts of Union Government of India has declined over time. India has depended more on indirect taxes for additional resource mobilization. Frequent upward revision of the exemption limit under the personal income tax tends to restrict growth of the tax base. The study covers the single major category of personal income tax payers individual. These account for more than 90% of the total number of personal income tax payers and their taxable income. The observed elasticity, progressivity and re-distribution impact of a tax is the net effect of interaction between tax parameters (such as tax schedule) and non tax parameters (such as income inequality). The study has concentrated on observed empirical functions and not on behaviouristic relations. So the discussion of tax evasion and tax compliance is beyond the scope of the study. Jain (1991)4, revealed that the private corporate sector has been looked upon as an important source of saving in India. The Government has succeeded in influencing the corporate decision processes at different levels and encourages them to save more. In Indian tax structure, there is a heavy tax on companys profits which reduces savings since it is assumed to be borne by the companies themselves; so the question of mechanics of corporate saving behaviour was probed into and she identified the possible channels through which taxes could influence corporate saving decisions. She insisted on revamping the tax structure. A reduction in tax rate would have a favourable impact on retention, resulting in utilization of more internal finance and ploughing back of profits. Tax reductions have to be combined with a corresponding review and reduction of tax incentives and fiscal incentives provided to the corporate sector. KADEL (2000)5 stated that Nepal, a small under developed country of the world economy, started using tax incentives to encourage private investments. The result was the introduction of tax holiday system and providing many other tax related facilities by Industrial Enterprise Act in 1962 and motive was to attract private investment. Since then, series of changes in tax rules were noticed. One of the objectives of all these changes was to create investor friendly environment and in turn increase investment. The author revealed that inflation is the main source of distortion for the corporate tax system in Nepal. Inflation rate and effective tax burden in Nepal are negatively related. The main determinant of fixed asset investment in Nepal is the availability of market or customer. The tax factor too as a determinant of fixed asset investment is playing only a small role in this regard. Across the four techniques of providing tax incentives i.e., tax holiday, accelerated depreciation, investment allowance and tax rate reduction, investment allowance is the best method to reduce the effective tax burden. Full tax holiday system is not preferable for both the reduction of tax burden and getting equity in the tax system. The proposed study will attempt to bridge the gap by focusing on international business. 1.7 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM India, the worlds largest democracy, has emerged as a strong player on the international arena. Indias role in international affairs is increasing at a higher pace. The thrust for major changes initiated by the Indian Government is to sweep away much burdensome regulation and create a business friendly environment for domestic and international business. Development took place through many reforms e.g. macro-economics reforms, tax reforms, finance reforms and freeing of capital markets, reforms in the regulation of business firms, revitalization of the Indian private sector, removal of exchange control and convertibility, trade reforms and foreign direct investment, reduction in licensing and quota raj as well as inspectors domain. Tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalize the Indian tax structure and increase tax compliance with the following steps: Reducing the rates of individual and corporate income taxes, excises, and customs and making it more progressive. Simplication of laws and procedures and introduction of Advance Ruling Introducing tax incentives in the form of exemptions and concessions. Easing out the rules relating to filing of returns (E-filing), TDS Laws relating to IB have also been simplified. Despite the above steps initiated by the government, the problem of ambiguity is continuing viz. (1) Business entities are not sure of their future tax liability in terms of rate of tax (to be applied in years to come, changing by virtue of Finance Act) (2) Retrospective amendment in the law has its own impact on foreign business entities.(Vodafone International Holding BV v Union of India) Vodafone was embroiled in a $2.5 billion tax dispute with the Indian Income Tax Department over its purchase of Hutchison Essar Telecom services in April 2007. It was being alleged by the Indian Tax authorities that the transaction involved purchase of assets of an Indian Company, and therefore the transaction or part thereof was liable to be taxed in India. Vodafone Group Plc. entered India in 2007 through a subsidiary based in the Netherlands, which acquired Hutchison Telecommunications International Ltds (HTIL) stake in Hutchison Essar Ltd (HEL)-the joint venture that held and operated telecom licences in India. This Cayman Islands transaction, along with several related agreements, gave Vodafone control over 67% of HEL and extinguished Hong Kong-based Hutchisons rights of control in India, a deal that cost the worlds largest telco $11.2 billion at the time. The crux of the dispute had been whether or not the Indian Income Tax Department has jurisdiction over the transaction. Vodafone had maintained from the outset that it is not liable to pay tax in India; and even if tax were somehow payable, then it should be Hutchison to bear the tax liability. In January 2012, the Indian Supreme Court passed the judgement in favor of Vodafone, saying that the Indian Income tax department had no jurisdiction to levy tax on overseas transaction between companies incorporated outside India. However, Indian government thinks otherwise. It believes that if an Indian company, Hutchison India Ltd., conducts a financial transaction, government should get its tax out of it. Therefore, in 2012, India changed its Income Tax Act retrospectively and made sure that any company, in similar circumstances, is not able to avoid tax by operating out of tax-havens like Cayman Islands or Lichtenstein. In May 2012, Indian authorities confirmed that they were going to charge Vodafone about Rs. 20000 crore (US $4.5 billion) in tax and fines. The second phase of the dispute is about to start. 3.) Lots of disputes and litigation are pending before the various court of law of the country which are deciding factors for tax liability of business entities.( Idea Cellular-ATT, GE-Genpact, Mitsui-Vedanta, Sabmiller-Fosters and the Sanofi Aventis-Shantha Biotech have tax cases pending in various high courts in the country) 4.) Uncertainty regarding the impact of direct tax laws and allied costs arising after the completion of total project particularly where in the international transactions, the gestation period of a project is too long ranging from 3 years or more. 5.) The effect of change of government policy due to tax avoidance treaty with other countries resulting in the total darkness regarding tax incidence on their profit after the completion of project. (India is negotiating the tax treaty with Mauritius to prevent evasion of tax. India wants to retain the right to tax capital gain arising to non-resident. India has already started raising tax demands against the companies and many of these cases are being disputed in various courts.) BRIEFLY, DOUBLE TAXATION, UNRESOLVED TAX DISPUTES, UNCERTAINTY IN THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL TAX RULES, HEAVY COMPLIANCE BURDENS, ALL CAN ACT AS A BARRIER TO THE EXPANSION OF CROSS-BORDER TRADE AND INVESTMENT, THEREBY HAMPERING INDIAS GROWTH RATE. 1.8 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY With a view to extract the gains of globalization and to develop international business in mutual interest, the present study is being undertaken with the following objectives: 1) to examine the role of direct tax laws in the development of International Business. 2) To appraise the Tax Professionals, Tax Executives and Entrepreneurs with the provisions of tax laws, connected with International Business/International Transactions and enabling them to take advantage of all tax benefits concessions (set-off carry forward),rebates (section 89) and reliefs(section 90 91), allowances(section 35), deductions ( section 80) and exemptions (section 10), available in our tax laws with due compliance of the requisites. 3) To suggest and propose measures to our policy makers that by making lawful amendments in the act, how our International Business can be strengthened. Broadly speaking, the study would address the following issues: What are the measures through which our tax professionals can manage their global tax risk and meet cross border obligation? How our business entities can complete their international transactions peacefully without facing any undue litigation or political harassment and thus maintaining effective relationship with tax authorities. What are the loopholes in the act which may be twisted by an assessee for their own benefit. It is required to be plugged or explained properly by the government by making amendments in the Act. The study also intends to make a comparative study of the tax rates of India with a few selected countries to encourage Indian enterprise to deal with countries having comparatively lower rate of tax . 1.10 LIMITATIONS Direct tax laws is a wide term which embraces in itself a variety of tax laws but the present study is restricted to Income Tax Act 1961. Income tax act 1961 is subject to change every year. This study is based purely on aspects of Income Tax Act 1961, for the assessment year 2012-13. 3) The nature of topic in itself is a big limitation. Till date, lacs and lacs of transactions have taken place in International Business and thousands of cases are pending in various Tribunals, High Courts and Supreme Court, waiting for the judgment. Whenever the final judgment will be pronounced, it will become a law and guiding factor for future policy makers and help for tax planning. 4) Other indirect tax laws like Customs Act, FEMA etc. are equally important in international business but we are restricting our study to the Income Tax Act only and leaving the scope for other research scholars willing in the same framework of study. 5) Further, the study has been conducted mainly from the point of view of the tax payer and not from that of the tax assessor or tax collectors, though it may be indirectly helpful to them in formulating appropriate policies and provides a basis for granting fiscal incentives based on national priorities. 1.11 HYPOTHESIS 1) The policy makers do not foresee at the time of framing the law that new techniques of tax evasion and avoidance may arise. The business houses with their expert legal brains, who are engaged mainly to seek loopholes in the law, take the maximum tax advantage due to the Government policy. They keep themselves within the framework of law but do not fulfil the intentions of the law, thereby tax avoidance arises. 2) The tax executives and business houses usually do not calculate the in depth risk of such transactions which arises due to higher gestation period of project. 3) Assessee do not forsee any change in the act with retrospective effect. 4) The assessee prefers a low rate of tax. 1.12 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The proposed study is descriptive and analytical in nature where in researcher uses facts or information already available and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material. Here researcher has no control over the variables. The researcher can only report what has happened or what is happening along with possible suggestions. So the study would be based on the various books, journals, Finance Acts, Explanatory Memorandum on the Budget of the Central Government, Reports of the various committees/commissions, Indian Economic Survey, Income Tax Act 1961, Income Tax Rules 1962, various announcements, circulars and notifications of Central Board of Direct Taxes, Budget speeches of Finance Ministers, Reports of Comptroller and Auditor General of India on Direct Taxes, Economic and Political Weekly, newspapers (Economic Times, Financial Express, Business Lines) etc. Moreover, websites of Income Tax Department, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Statistics and Comptroller and Auditor General of India have also been used for collection and analysis of data. The methodology may further be modified with the want of the circumstances. CONCLUSION This chapter laid the foundation for the research. It introduced the research problem and research question and hypothesis. Focus is also laid on the review of existing studies, limitation of the study and methodology adopted. Future outline In the upcoming chapters, an attempt has been made to discuss various Direct tax instruments which directly help in the development of International Business. These instruments have been specifically provided by our policy makers in our tax laws, keeping in view the national priority for development, growth and employment. At the same time, the need to augment revenue and resources have been duly kept in consideration, being an equal factor for development of the country. Such instruments as have been discussed in our future chapters have contributed its growth values in the development of International Business. These provisions and their impact with broad outlines and suggestions have been discussed in detail.